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Meaning Type of value being stored is incompatible with the type of the array Division by zero attempted Array index is out-of-bounds A runtime cast is invalid Insufficient free memory exists to continue program execution For example, this exception will be thrown if there is not sufficient free memory to create an object via new An arithmetic overflow occurred An attempt was made to operate on a null reference that is, a reference that does not refer to an object

TABLE 13-1

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Most of the exceptions in Table 13-1 are self-explanatory, with the possible exception of NullReferenceException This exception is thrown when there is an attempt to use a null reference as if it referred to an object for example, if you attempt to call a method on a null reference A null reference is a reference that does not point to any object One way to create a null reference is to explicitly assign it the value null by using the keyword null Null references can also occur in other ways that are less obvious Here is a program that demonstrates the NullReferenceException:

Brad said, I m so glad I went through this process! If I hadn t, I might never have thought to mention pro t potential and to remind them that Georgia offered the lowest overall risk Looking at it now, I can t believe that I forgot to mention pro t because, after all, that is the bottom line: the lower the risk, the higher the pro t potential Do you see Brad s point By thinking about the ending of your communications, you re able to highlight, summarize, or restate key points

// Use the NullReferenceException using System; class X { int x; public X(int a) { x = a; } public int Add(X o) { return x + ox; } } // Demonstrate NullReferenceException class NREDemo { static void Main() { X p = new X(10); X q = null; // q is explicitly assigned null int val;

Part I:

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try { val = pAdd(q); // this will lead to an exception } catch (NullReferenceException) { ConsoleWriteLine("NullReferenceException!"); ConsoleWriteLine("fixing\n"); // Now, fix it q = new X(9); val = pAdd(q); } ConsoleWriteLine("val is {0}", val); } }

The output from the program is shown here:

The program creates a class called X that defines a member called x and the Add( ) method, which adds the invoking object s x to the x in the object passed as a parameter In Main( ), two X objects are created The first, p, is initialized The second, q, is not Instead, it is explicitly assigned null Then pAdd( ) is called with q as an argument Because q does not refer to any object, a NullReferenceException is generated when the attempt is made to obtain the value of qx

Although C# s built-in exceptions handle most common errors, C# s exception-handling mechanism is not limited to these errors In fact, part of the power of C# s approach to exceptions is its ability to handle exception types that you create You can use custom exceptions to handle errors in your own code Creating an exception is easy Just define a class derived from Exception Your derived classes don t need to actually implement anything it is their existence in the type system that allows you to use them as exceptions

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hierarchy that was originally reserved for application-related exceptions However, Microsoft no longer recommends this Instead, at the time of this writing, Microsoft recommends deriving custom exceptions from Exception For this reason, this approach is used here The exception classes that you create will automatically have the properties and methods defined by Exception available to them Of course, you can override one or more of these members in exception classes that you create

13:

Numbers and examples aid comprehension and believability The more speci c the examples, facts, statistics, and numbers you can integrate into your text, the more credible your communications will be EXERCISE 34: Add Speci city In your own draft, and in Brad s, look for opportunities to add examples, numbers, or facts Because your work on Brad s report is speculative in nature, feel free to make up likely numbers or statistics The goal of this exercise isn t to belabor the details; rather, it is to ensure that you understand the importance of adding speci city and to be certain you know where and how to integrate examples and numbers